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1. Cycle Contents

2. Cycle Vocabulary
   1. Week 1
      1. Session 1
   2. Week 2
      1. Session 1
   3. Week 3
      1. Session 1

3. Reading Sections
   1. “Living For a Century” [Upstream Unit 10 SB, P:176, Week 1 Session 1]
   2. “Little Women” [Upstream Unit 10 SB, P:182, Week 2 Session 1]
   3. “Understanding Conservation” [NWF , link, Week 3 Session 1]

4. Extra Reading
   1. “Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect?” [Nature (By: Christian Gamborg), link, Week 3 Session 1]

Cycle Content

Week 1

1. Upstream:
   1. Unit 10: The Cycle of Life

2. Writing Academic English:
   1. Part 2: Sentence Structure, Chapter 12: Noun Clauses
   2. Part 2: Sentence Structure, Chapter 13: Adverb Clauses
   3. Part 2: Sentence Structure, Chapter 14: Adjective Clauses
   4. Part 2: Sentence Structure, Chapter 15: Participial Phrases

3. Some online resources

Week 2

1. Upstream:
   1. (continue) Unit 10: The Cycle of Life

2. Some online resources

Week 3

1. New Hello:
   1. Unit 9: Conservation
   2. Unit 10: The News

2. Some online resources

** All online resources can be found in the cycle file.

Cycle Vocabulary

Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Reading

“Living For a Century” [Upstream Unit 10 SB, P:176, Week 1 Session 1]

The good news is that we can all expect to live both longer and healthier lives than any other generation in history. How well we age, however, is basically up to us!

The 20th century will probably be largely remembered for having the highest increase in life expectancy in recorded history. The average lifespan for men and women has now almost doubled. What's more, this seems to be a continuing trend.

Not only are we living longer, but we are also living a far healthier lifestyle. With record numbers of fit, healthy people reaching the age of 90 and over, it is becoming clear that negative predictions of a greying population, troubled by increasing numbers of diseases as well as huge medical bills, have been exaggerated.

Our view of what old age actually means has changed dramatically. Many of today's pensioners, compared to the elderly in days gone by, tend to enjoy a quality of life without stress, travelling here, there and everywhere, learning new skills, taking up different sports, starting businesses and actively looking forward to each new day. Our actual opinion of what is old and what is not old tends to change with the passing of time as well as higher levels of longevity.

We can see that there are many different aspects affecting the ageing process, including lifestyle, attitude, social circumstances and diet. Studies carried out on mice, for example, have shown that intake of fewer calories allowed mice to live up to 40% longer than those who ate as much as they wanted. In human years this is equal to 30 or 40 more years of life. The mice also stayed energetic longer, had better memories and lower levels of cancer. Japanese people living on the island of Okinawa, in fact, consume 20 percent fewer calories than the rest of the population of Japan and, as a result, have the highest population of centenarians anywhere in the world!

The challenge the rest of us now face is how to delay the ageing process. There are, in fact, two different aspects to ageing that we need to be aware of, the one involving the natural passing of time and the other involving the natural, physical ageing of the body. While we have no control over our chronological age, we can, up to a point, do a lot to slow down biological ageing by taking the following advice.

“Little Women” [Upstream Unit 10 SB, P:182, Week 2 Session 1]

“Are you satisfied with your experiment, girls, or do you want another week of it?" she asked, as Beth nestled up to her and the rest turned toward her with brightening faces, as flowers turn toward the sun.

“I don't!” cried Jo decidedly.

“Nor I," echoed the others.

“You think then, that it is better to have a few duties and live a little for others, do you?”

“Being lazy and fooling around all day doesn't pay. And I intend to go to work at something right now,” said Jo, shaking her head.

“Suppose you learn plain cooking. That’s a useful accomplishment, which no woman should be without.” said Mrs. March, laughing inaudibly at the recollection of Jo's dinner party, for she had met Miss Crocker and heard her account of it.

“Mother, did you go away and let everything be, just to see how we'd get on?” cried Meg. She had had suspicions about that all day.

“Yes, I wanted you to see how the comfort of all depends on each doing her share faithfully. While Hannah and I did your work, you got on pretty well though I don't think you were very happy or amiable. So I thought, as a little lesson, I would show you what happens when everyone thinks only of herself. Don't you feel that it is more pleasant to help one another, to have daily duties which make leisure sweet when it comes, and make our home comfortable and lovely to us all?”

“We do, Mother we do!” cried the girls.

“Then let me advise you to take up your little burdens again, for though they seem heavy sometimes, they are good for us, and lighten as we learn to carry them. Work is wholesome, and there is plenty for everyone. It keeps us from boredom and mischief, is good for health and spirits, and gives us a sense of power and independence better than money or fashion."

“We'll work like bees, and love it too, see if we don't,” said Jo. “I’ll learn plain cooking for my holiday task, and the dinner party I have shall be a success.”

“I’ll make the set of shirts for father, instead of letting you do it, Marmee. I can and I will, though I’m not fond of sewing. That will be better than fussing over my own things, which are plenty nice enough as they are,” said Meg.

“I’ll do my lessons every day, and not spend so much time with my music and dolls. I’ve been silly, and ought to be studying, not playing.” was Beth's resolution, while Amy followed their example by heroically declaring, “I shall learn to make buttonholes, and attend to my parts of speech.”

“Very good! Then I am quite satisfied with the experiment, and fancy that we shall not have to repeat it, only don't go to the other extreme and work like slaves. Have regular hours for work and play, make each day both useful and pleasant, and prove that you understand and worth of time by employing it well. Then youth will be delightful, old age will bring few regrets, and life become a beautiful success, in spite of poverty.”

“We’ll remember, Mother!” And they did.

“Understanding Conservation” [NWF , link, Week 3 Session 1]

Wildlife conservation is the preservation and protection of animals, plants, and their habitats. By conserving wildlife, we're ensuring that future generations can enjoy our natural world and the incredible species that live within it. To help protect wildlife, it's important to understand how species interact within their ecosystems, and how they're affected by environmental and human influences.

Phenology

Plants and animals have life events that seemingly occur like clockwork every year. Birds can migrate, mammals may hibernate, flowers bloom, and leaves change colors. The study of how the biological world times these natural events is called phenology. Scientists now understand that plants and animals take their cues from their local climate (long-term weather patterns). Climate is impacted by non-biological factors—temperature, precipitation, and available sunlight. Species use the predictable yearly changes in the climate to determine when they start natural events such as breeding or flowering.

Climate change is slowly increasing average annual temperatures. One of the most noticeable ways that climate change is impacting wildlife is by disrupting the timing of natural events. With warmer temperatures, flowering plants are blooming earlier in the year and migratory birds are returning from their wintering grounds earlier in the spring. Phenology is an important subject for conservationists to study because it helps us understand the patterns of specific species and overall ecosystem health. Every species has an impact on those in its food chain and community, and the timing of one species' phenological events can be very important to the survival of another species.

Food Webs and Bioaccumulation

The energy we receive from food can be traced back to the sun. As the sun shines, it radiates light energy. Plants absorb the light energy, convert it to sugars (photosynthesis), and produce energy for other wildlife. The energy from the sun moves its way through ecosystems by predators eating their prey. A food web breaks down how all the producers, consumers, and decomposers interact in an ecosystem and how energy is transferred between species.

When animals eat their prey, they consume more than just energy. They also absorb all the chemicals and nutrients inside the prey. Sometimes animals ingest pollutants that can become stored in their fat and tissues. Human-caused pollution has added heavy metals, oil, and industrial and pharmaceutical chemicals to the environment. Plants, fish, and other species absorb these toxins, and as they are eaten by predators, the toxins are then absorbed into the predators’ tissues. As the chain of predator and prey continues up the food web, the toxins become more concentrated and move higher and higher up the food web. The process that causes the concentration of a substance to increase as it moves up the food web is called bioaccumulation. The pollutants can have a disastrous effect on the food web and potentially kill species.

Natural Disturbances

A natural disturbance is any event that causes a disruption to the current state of an ecosystem. Natural disturbances are caused by forces of nature, including weather, geology, and biological fluctuations. This may include fires, floods, earthquakes, diseases, and droughts. After a disturbance impacts an ecosystem, there can be devastation, but healthy ecosystems have an amazing ability to bounce back. Some ecosystems even depend on disturbances, such as the threatened longleaf pine ecosystem. Sometimes the ecosystem will go back to its former structure, with the same plant and animal species. Other times, the disturbance will create something new by allowing new species to populate the area.

Not all disturbances are natural. Human actions have contributed to many disturbances seen in ecosystems today. While natural disturbances happen on occasion, human disturbances are putting constant pressure on ecosystems and dramatically impacting species. Human disturbances, including clear-cutting, habitat fragmentation, and pollution, are continuously affecting ecosystems. The moment the ecosystem begins adjusting to one stress, another appears. Many ecosystems that we depend on are not given enough time to adapt to the new conditions. The natural cycle of disturbances—growth, dieback, and growth—cannot properly function because too many disturbances are putting pressure on the ecosystem at once.

Corridors and Flyways

Wild animals are always on the move. They move from place to place in search of food, mates, shelter, and water. Many animals do not have to move far in order to have all their needs met, but other animals—for example migratory birds, wolves, mountain lions, or butterflies—require much more space. Currently many species with large territories, including gray wolves, are threatened because habitat loss and fragmentation have limited their available space. Roads, fences, and buildings cut off habitat and force wildlife into smaller areas. Conservationists have to take into account the different spatial needs of wildlife when designing plans to protect them. They have to think about the territory size, different habitat types, and migration routes that wildlife need.

A wildlife corridor is a tract of land that connects different wildlife habitats (such as refuges, parks, or rivers) that might otherwise be separated by human development. Wildlife corridors provide many benefits to wildlife. With corridors, animals have a better opportunity of finding the basic necessities they need—food, water, shelter, and places to raise their young. Animals that require larger territories can access new habitats and maintain a healthy territory size. Wildlife corridors also promote genetic biodiversity. When more individuals of a species are interconnected, the gene pool becomes larger and more viable. Migratory wildlife benefit from corridors because they can move safely over long distances without having to come into contact with human developments or cars. Species are more likely to survive disturbances by having more undisturbed areas.

The National Wildlife Federation, in partnership with the Santa Monica Mountains Fund, is working to create a wildlife crossing for mountain lions in California. By linking protected habitat on either side of a freeway, mountain lions and other wildlife can the access to green space they need to survive. The Liberty Canyon Wildlife Crossing, when built, will be the largest such crossing in the world, and a model for urban wildlife conservation.

Unlike mammals, birds and butterflies travel from one place to another by flying, so they face different kinds of challenges. Not only do we have to protect their winter and summer habitat, but also key rest stops that migratory wildlife use along the way. Conservationists can help threatened bird and butterfly populations by protecting habitat along major migratory flyways—pathways used by migratory birds and insects. Birds tend to take predictable routes to get from the winter feeding grounds to the summer breeding grounds and back. Flyways usually occur along coastlines, major rivers, and near mountains. The United States has four main migratory flyways.

Pacific Flyway: Along the Pacific coast, west of the Rocky Mountains

Central Flyway: Over the Great Plains, east of the Rocky Mountains

Mississippi Flyway: Along the Mississippi River

Atlantic Flyway: Along the Atlantic coast

A great way to help birds and butterflies migrate is by building a Certified Wildlife Habitat in your backyard or balcony. Learn how to provide a critical resting place and food source to help migratory birds reach their destination.

Extra Reading

“Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect?” [Nature (By: Christian Gamborg), link, Week 3 Session 1]